Příčiny argentinské krize

Martin Hrabálek - 5. Březen 2002, rubrika Články

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Současnou argentinskou krizí nebude trpět pouze 35 milionů obyvatel této jihoamerické země. Hospodářský úpadek bude mít vliv na situaci v latinskoamerickém regionu jako celku. Již nyní je jisté, že Argentina bude muset upustit od reforem, které byly započaty prezidentem Menemem na počátku devadesátých let. Ty sice nejsou důvodem současné krize, ale poslouží jako obětní beránek a odůvodnění pro opětovné znárodnění podniků, vztyčení bariér zahraničním investicím a dovozu a zvýšení vládních výdajů.

Tato krize výrazně oslabí obchod v rámci Mercosuru (hospodářská organizace zahrnující Argentinu, Brazílii, Paraguay a Uruguay) a může zabránit vytvoření zóny volného obchodu v Latinské Americe. Mnoho Argentinců viní Washington, že politika Spojených států je dostala do problémů a Američané je nyní opustili, protože na rozdíl od Turecka pro ně není Argentina tak geopoliticky důležitá.

Argentinská situace je varováním pro ostatní rozvojové země. Proto je nutné ji analyzovat, aby se ostatní země z jejího příkladu mohly poučit a nebyly odrazeny argentinským neúspěchem.

Příliš vysoký pevný devizový kurz (stanoven na jedno peso za dolar v roce 1991) a velký růst zahraničního dluhu byly dva hlavní důvody argentinského pádu. Při vysoce stanoveném devizovém kurzu země dovážela několikrát více, než sama vyvezla. Tato nerovnováha znemožnila Argentině získat dostatečné množství peněz na uhrazení úroků ze zahraničního dluhu. Místo toho dluh stále rostl. V roce 2001 již dosáhl padesáti procent hrubého domácího produktu. Bylo zřejmé, že Argentina si již dále nemohla půjčovat, aby uhradila úroky a vláda byla donucena devalvovat peso.

Pomocí devalvace sice vláda zvyšuje možnosti exportu zboží, v domácí ekonomice ale dochází k rozsáhlým bankrotům. To je dáno tím, že většina podniků si půjčuje peníze v dolarech. Při půjčce milionu dolarů musela firma dosud splatit milion pesos na uhrazení dluhu. Při devalvaci pesa o 50 % však již musí splatit dva miliony pesos, což si spousta firem nemůže dovolit. Bankroty firem pak mohou následně vést k bankrotům bank. Již tak vysoká nezaměstnanost v zemi se ještě výrazně zvýší.

Situace, která nastala v Argentině, však rozhodně není ojedinělá. Vysoký devizový kurz a nadměrný zahraniční dluh byly, ať již společně, nebo jednotlivě, příčinou každé finanční krize za posledních 25 let. Fakt, že zahraniční dluhy se platí v dolarech, vedl k rozsáhlým krizím v jihovýchodní Asii v závěru devadesátých let.

Otázkou tak zůstává, proč argentinská vláda, která znala příčiny těchto krizí, nesáhla k uvolnění devizového kurzu daleko dříve a nevytvořila tím konkurenční prostředí, s jehož pomocí by mohla dluhy uhradit. Kdyby to byla udělala, nejspíš by se současné krizi vyhnula.

Důvod, proč tak neučinila, je však jednoduchý. Toto opatření ukončilo hyperinflaci na konci osmdesátých let a přivedlo zemi do období cenové stability a ekonomického růstu. Politici v Buenos Aires se obávali, že odpoutání od dolaru by vedlo k inflaci a ekonomickým problémům.

Tyto obavy se zdály opodstatněné. Na začátku roku 1990 rostly spotřebitelské ceny o 200 % měsíčně, celkově pak o více než 5000 % za rok. Pouliční nepokoje vedly k odstoupení prezidenta Alfonsa a jeho vystřídání Menemem. Ten spolu se svým ministrem financí Domingem Cavallem dokázal vyvést Argentinu z mezinárodní hospodářské izolace a stál za rozsáhlou privatizací podniků, čímž přilákal do země zahraniční investory.

Těmito kroky tak Argentina následovala Chile, Mexiko a jihoasijské státy, které v té době již vykazovaly silný ekonomický růst. Argentina nebyla výjimkou, mezi lety 1991 až 1994 rostla ekonomika o více než 7 % ročně, což byl v té době jeden z nejvyšších ukazatelů na světě.

Argentina však šla dál než její vzory. Státem byla zaručena směnitelnost pesa za dolar jedna k jedné v jakémkoli množství. Aby dodala tomuto slibu důvěryhodnost, vláda učinila opatření, že každé peso v oběhu muselo být kryto dolarem (či jeho ekvivalentem v jiné tvrdé měně) v centrální bance.

Pokud by Menem s Cavallem uspěli, měla by dnes Argentina silnou ekonomiku, nízkou inflaci a finanční stabilitu. Argentinské produkty však nebyly s pevným kurzem měny schopny konkurovat zahraničním výrobkům, což vedlo ke zvýšenému dovozu a nízkému vývozu. Situace by mohla být napravena, pokud by produktivita práce rostla rychleji než reálné mzdy, což by umožnilo relativní pokles argentinských cen vzhledem k zahraničním cenám. Tato situace se dala po liberalizaci trhu očekávat a také k ní zčásti došlo. Rigidní zákony pracovního práva a silné odborové tlaky však znemožnily další redukci produkčních nákladů a omezily tím další konkurenceschop­nost.

Ne všichni však byli přesvědčeni o tom, že by kurz měl zůstat fixní a objevily se úvahy, co by se stalo, pokud by investoři, znepokojení vývojem argentinského zahraničního dluhu a obchodní bilance chtěli směnit svá pesa za dolary. Vláda sice měla dostatek dolarů na pokrytí peněz v oběhu, ne však již na pokrytí hodnoty všech účtů v bankách.

Tento problém však šlo obejít. Pokud by Argentinci začali směňovat svá pesa za dolary, mohla centrální banka zvýšit úrokové sazby, což by vedlo k tomu, že lidé by znovu začali ukládat své úspory v pesos. Centrální banka by tak nikdy nevyčerpala svou zásobu dolarů. Toto opatření by navíc vedlo k poklesu mezd a cen a peso by mohlo znovu být konkurenceschopné.

Problém by nastal, kdyby centrální banka ze strachu o úpadek ekonomiky nezvedla úrokové sazby dost vysoko. Cavallo ale nepočítal s tím, že by se k takovým opatřením muselo sáhnout. Nárůst produktivity měl podle něj učinit z pesa konkurenceschopnou měnu, která jednou bude moci fixní kurz s dolarem opustit.

Bohužel pro Argentinu se tomu tak nestalo. Růst dolaru oproti ostatním světovým měnám v průběhu devadesátých let stále zhoršoval možnosti argentinského vývozu a zlevňoval dovoz. Největší rána argentinské ekonomice ale přišla v roce 1999, kdy dramatickým způsobem devalvoval brazilský real.

Aby udržela svůj fixní kurz s dolarem, musela centrální banka zvýšit úrokovou sazbu. Ale i přes patnáctiprocentní nezaměstnanost výše mezd neklesala. Fixní kurz navíc neumožnil politikům v Buenos Aires devalvovat měnu, jak se tomu stalo v Jižní Koreji v roce 1998 a o rok později v Brazílii. Silné odbory navíc zabránily tomu, aby došlo k poklesu produkčních nákladů.

Důsledkem toho byl vzrůstající deficit rozpočtu, který stále zvyšoval zahraniční dluh. Spolu s růstem dluhu docházelo pochopitelně k růstu úroků, které Argentina nebyla schopna splácet. Když v prosinci 2001 vláda konečně vyhlásila neschopnost platit závazky, byl již dluh ve výši 155 miliard dolarů.

Rozumně uvažující Argentinci a zahraniční investoři si již dříve spočítali, že tento vývoj povede k devalvaci a začali směňovat pesa za dolary. Centrální banka začala rychle ztrácet své rezervy. Situaci ještě na chvíli zachránila půjčka od Mezinárodního měnového fondu v roce 2001, ale tyto peníze vydržely jen několik měsíců a tak v lednu 2002 přišlo to, co přijít muselo. Argentina zdevalvovala peso.

Otázkou zůstává, proč vláda nedevalvovala dříve, čímž by devalvaci i její účinky na argentinskou ekonomiku zmírnila. Existují pro to tři důvody. Za prvé, byly zde obavy, že při odpoutání od dolaru znovu dojde k hyperinflaci likvidující argentinskou ekonomiku.

Za druhé, argentinské domácnosti i podniky měly dluhy v dolarech a vláda se obávala, že při devalvaci by došlo k obrovskému množství bankrotů a individuálních platebních neschopností. Tento problém se týkal také centrální vlády a provinciálních vlád, jejichž dluhy byly také vedeny v dolarech, zatímco daně byly vybírány v pesech.

Za třetí, byla tu stále silná naděje, že se časem vše spraví. Deficit obchodní bilance Spojených států naznačoval, že by dolar mohl silně oslabit, což by zvýšilo konkurenceschopnost argentinských produktů na zahraničních trzích. Dolar však v letech 2000 a 2001 stále posiloval.

Jaká byla role MMF v případě argentinské krize? Kritici fondu vytýkají především tři věci. Za prvé, fond dostatečně nevaroval Argentinu před nebezpečím její ekonomické politiky. Za druhé, donutil Argentinu ke kontraktivní politice, která vedla k třem letům recese předtím, než krize vypukla. Za třetí, fond prodloužil trvání špatné hospodářské politiky sérii vysokých půjček.

Argentinci však sami dobře věděli, co může politika fixního kurzu způsobit. Podstoupili riziko, které mohlo přinést kýžené ovoce. Byl to však MMF, který Argentinu podněcoval k pokračování v této politice. Přestože takřka všichni analytici upozorňovali, že systém pevného kurzu není dobrý, MMF uvěřil, že je z dlouhodobého hlediska životaschopnou volbou. Argentinský příklad ukázal, že tomu tak není.

Co se týče druhé výtky, kontraktivní politika byla tím, co argentinská ekonomika potřebovala. Chybou MMF je, že nedokázal Argentině vnutit potřebné změny, které byly potřeba například v oblasti regionálních rozpočtů.

Mnohamiliardové půjčky, které fond zemi poskytl, dovolily centrální vládě, aby se příliš nezabývala palčivými hospodářskými problémy. Je pravdou, že fond chtěl Argentinu podpořit a ocenit tak její přechod k tržní ekonomice, mohl tak však učinit jinak než vrháním desítek miliard do ztracené bitvy.

Čím se můžeme poučit z argentinské krize? Za prvé, systém pevného devizového kurzu není životaschopný. Pouze systém plovoucího kurzu je schopen se vyhnout výše zmíněným problémům.

Za druhé, zahraniční půjčky v dolarech jsou velmi riskantní, ať již jsou jejich příjemci firmy nebo státní sektor. Například při přímých investicích tyto problémy nevznikají.

Za třetí, liberalizace trhů je pozitivní a žádoucí. Bylo by velmi mylné domnívat se, že tento faktor způsobil argentinskou krizi a zároveň by bylo velikou chybou snažit se tento proces zvrátit jak v Argentině, tak v ostatních rozvojových zemích.

Vypracováno na základě: Feldstein, M.: Argentina’s Fall, Foreign Affairs, New York, March/April 2002.

Časopis pro politiku a mezinárodní vztahy

S podporou International Institute of Political Science v Brně

 
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