• Global Politics: časopis pro politiku a mezinárodní vztahy - Úvodní stránka

This article belongs to a special series focused on post-development issues which was created in co-operation with the University of Vienna.

Within the framework of this paper I explicate the basic elements of colonial as well as development discourse. Although we can identify an obvious rupture line between colonialism and the era of development, I demonstrate that the colonial heritage structures development discourse in various ways. While there have been some significant changes on the rhetoric level, basic colonial concepts still prevail such as a dichotomic and hierarchical worldview, the evolutionary paradigm with the West as its benchmark, the idea of ‘white’ expertise etc. These often racialised assumptions produce unequal power relations within the development industry and structure the very idea of development itself.

 

1. Introduction and Terminologies

The starting point for my research interest is the encouragement which the seminar on “Post-Development Theory and Practice” has given me to question the very idea of development. As many of the post-development authors we read during this semester explain, the “era of development” began in the 1940s during the process of decolonization and thus directly succeeded the era of colonialism. (cf. Esteva 1992) The relation between colonial power and colonized country has often been converted into a bilateral donor-recipient cooperation. (cf. Gomes 2006: 15) A glance at the current “Donor Aid Charts” available on the DAC Homepage (Development Assistance Comitee), confirms this thesis. (cf. DAC 2008) Former research which I did on the topic of racism in development aid has made me realize the striking parallels between colonial worldviews and the ideology of development. However, as Kotahri observes “Investigations of the links between colonialism and contemporary international development (…) emerged only recently” (Kothari 2005: 48) and “Attempting to understand and analyse this interconnectedness (…) is not a mainstream preoccupation within development studies.” (ibid: 50) Although I think the Institute for International Development at the University of Vienna is an exception here, the literature research I have been doing shows that there clearly is a need for further investigations. Thus, within the framework of this paper I would like to explore to what extent the colonial heritage shapes the present development discourse and the practice of development aid. I would like to work on the following questions: Has decolonization led to a significant rupture line between colonial discourse and development discourse? If so what has changed? To what extent can colonial continuities be detected in development discourse and practice?

I am aware of the fact that the very limited length of this paper makes it impossible to cover the topic in its whole complexity. However, I will try to give an outline of the colonial (dis-) continuities in development discourse and practice, focusing on the aspects that seem most important to me.

To begin with, I think it is necessary to define several terms and concepts that are essential for my following argument.

Discourse

As the title of my seminar paper anticipates, my analysis is based on Michel Foucault’s concept of ‘discourse’ with the basic idea that “Speaking means doing something”. (Foucault in Ziai 2006: 42, translation by author) Giving a very short (and of course very simplifying) definition: “For Foucault, the term ‚discourse‘ referred both to the historically contingent sets of practices […] which limit human actions and what may be thought, and to the theoretical concept which accounts for the fact that humans actually do act and think in line with these ‚regimes of truth‘ ”. (Fox 1998: 416) Thus, Discourse is about the production of knowledge through language, but is itself produced by a practice – the practice of producing meaning. (cf. Hall 1992: 292)

Racism

Out of the many different definitions of this term, I would like to employ the following one: “Racism can be described as “a way of thinking, which divides people into groups based on perceived physical or cultural features and ascribes different capabilities, competences or character features to these groups”. (Hund in Ziai 2008: 193, translation by author) Due to the scientific proof that human ‘races’ do not exist, the formerly prevalent ‘biological’ racism has increasingly been replaced by what can be called ‘cultural racism’ – this means discrimination legitimated by reference to cultural rather than to biological differences. In order to understand this form of racism and its occurrence in private and political discourses, we have to become aware of the fact that the ideas we have of ethnicity, nationality and ‘race’ are merging, overlapping and cannot be understood unconnectedly. Furthermore racism is a complex and multilayer phenomenon and racialized constraints will be felt differently in distinct social contexts and regions (cf. Rattansi 2007: 104 f.)

“The West”

Following Stuart Halls approach in “The West and the Rest” I would like to understand the West as a historical, not a geographical construct which refers to a type of society that describes itself as being developed, industrialised, urbanised, capitalist, secularised and modern. “The West” thus comprises Western Europe, the USA and recently also Japan. Being aware of the extreme simplifications that this implies, I still think that this concept proves to be useful for my following argument. (cf. Hall 1992)

2. From Colonial to Development Discourse

2.1. Colonial Discourse

As Osterhammel explains in his book “Kolonialismus. Gechichte – Formen – Folgen”, colonialism and colonial thinking cannot be understood as a concrete doctrine. Although all colonialisms have developed some kind of vindicatory paradigm or imperialist vision, he argues that it is not useful do search for one concrete colonial theory. In order to define the “colonial discourse” we should rather try to detect similarities and common ideological patterns, actions and images in sources such as missionary reports, administration papers, memoirs, travelogues, fictional literature, press, propaganda campaigns and scientific research e.g. in geography, ethnology and oriental studies. Being aware of the heterogeneity of colonial discourses, Osterhammel explains that it is possible to identify the following basic elements: the construction of “inferior otherness”, the “sense of mission” combined with the “duty of tutelage” and the utopia of non-politics (cf. Osterhammel 1995: 113 f.) or in other words: racism, missionary desire and universalism. (cf. Sonderegger 2008: 46)

The construction of the “inferior otherness”

Central to colonial thinking is the idea that inhabitants of non-European regions are fundamentally different from Europeans in terms of physical and intellectual endowment. This basic idea of difference as a matter of principle has been argued in different ways. Within a biological approach this difference is based on the idea of unchangeable “racial” features, theologically it is pagan depravity, determined by the environment it is the tropical climate which weakens the human being and makes it lazy, technologically it is the other’s minor capability to control nature and so forth. (cf. Osterhammel 1995: 115) Out of its Eurocentric perspective, colonial discourse sees the world as being divided in two parts: the inside vs. the outside, the core vs. the periphery, the self vs. the other. Using Stuart Hall’s idiom of ‘the west and the rest’, the ‘rest’ embodies Europe’s inferior counterpart. (cf. Kothari 2006: 11) Thus, “the colonizer’s model of the world” (Blaut 1993) is shaped by hierarchic dichotomies:

Characteristic of Core	Characteristic of Periphery
Rationality, intellect	Irrationality, emotion, instinct
Abstract thought	Concrete thought
Theoretical Reasoning	Empirical, practical reasoning
Mind	Body, matter
Discipline	Spontaneity
Adulthood	Childhood
Science	Sorcery
Progress	Stagnation
Inventiveness	Imitativeness

(cf. Blaut 1992: 17)

Further dichotomies can be detected:

Progressive	Unprogressive, backward
Civilized	Uncivilized
Enlightened	Barbaric

(cf. Ziai 2008: 196 ff.)

This dichotomous paradigm expresses “the otherness in the name of sameness, reduces the different to the already known, and thus fundamentally escapes the task of making sense of other worlds”. (Mudimbe in White 2002: 413) This process of constructing the inferior ‘other’ not only shaped how non-European societies came to be known, but also how Europe created its own identity as antipode to this other. (cf. Kothari 2006: 11 f.)

During the age of enlightenment new ideas of progress and human history evolved, resulting in a new cosmology which links geographical distance with chronological distance: the ‘other’ was now seen as a preliminary stage of the own development. The idea of one single universally valid way of social development with the Western society as its benchmark became dominant. Making this goal-oriented reference to Europe, it is clear that the ‘inferior’ culture would sooner or later have to vanish. Concluding, all non-European cultures, their worldviews and practices appeared as obstacles for the universal development of humankind. (cf. Melber 1992: 32 f.; Ziai 2008: 196 ff.)

The “sense of mission” and the “duty of tutelage”

As non-European societies were seen as minor and dependent, they obviously were in need of tutelage. Especially during the 19th and 20th century the justification for colonialism was the ‘liberation of tyranny’ and ‘intellectual darkness’. However, not only did colonizing countries see it as their duty to bring ‘western civilization’ to other parts of the world, but also to make use of the fallow resources for the common welfare of the world economy. According to colonial discourse tutelage was said to be needed in three areas:

• Politics: especially Africans ad Asians were seen not to be capable of self governance
• Economy: teaching ‘working morale’ and ‘economic rationality’
• Culture: to “free people of their superstitious and immoral world views” (Osterhammel 1995:115)

According to this perspective, the relation between the colonizer and the colonized was not exploitative but rather complementary – the colonizer had to fulfill his civilizing mission, “the white man’s burden”. (cf. Osterhammel 1995: 115 f.)

2.2. Development Discourse

The notion of “development” became especially popular, when Harry S. Truman declared the Southern hemisphere as “underdeveloped areas” in his inauguration speech in 1949. Against the background of the Cold War, the promise of “development” was an instrument to establish the dominant position of the USA after 1945. In this context “development” has always been a justification for the international intervention of the North in the name of higher goals. Although the geopolitical circumstances have changed considerably, “development” still is a very dominant term, used not only by international institutions, but also by conservative groups as well as revolutionary or grassroots movements. (cf. Sachs 1995: 1 ff.) An actual definition of “development” is hard to find. Esteva traces the roots of this term back to biological theories, where it was first used to describe the transformation of the seed into the plant which can be interpreted as the “appropriate form of being”. With the evolutionary theory, “development” became the “…transformation that moves towards an ever more perfect form.” (Esteva 1992: 8) By the end of the 18th century the concept of this process of transformation in nature was taken over to explain historical development. Especially Hegel and Marx emphasised the necessary character of the historical process and the inherent natural laws causing it. Consequently the idea of development implies a homogenous and linear evolution of the world and history becomes a programme that has to be absolved. (cf. Sachs 1995: 1 f.) Given this scale of development, some people (and places) can be graded as less developed than others. Planned development “requires identification of who is developed and who can legitimately bestow ideas about modernity, progress, morality and civility”. (Kothari 2006: 13)

Aram Ziai identifies the following theoretical basic assumptions that most development theories share despite their differences:

• the norm of state of development are the western industrial nations
• the norm of development as a process are the western industrialized nations
• the nations which have deficits in relation to this norm are in need of economic growth, social modernization and western technology in order to progress on the universal path of development and to reach the target state of a developed society (Ziai 138 ff., translation by author)

I am aware of the fact that the idea of one single homogenous formation to be called ‘development discourse’ would be highly oversimplifying and ignoring the great diversity of concepts associated with ‘development’. However, I think that the basic elements depicted above can be identified in most development paradigms and can be congregated under the term ‘development discourse’. As Dubois wrote:

“Above the polemics and disagreements over policy, which appear to distinguish the sundry schools of thought in development, there exists a profound unity. The locus of this unity is to be found not in the perception of the causes of underdevelopment or the approaches to solving problems therein, but in the definition and identification of these problems of underdevelopment in the first place. Underdevelopment is defined as a lack – a lack that stands out in relief against the backdrop of a ‘complete’ Western society”. (…)The manifold critiques of development leave intact the illusion that development comprises a natural category”. (DuBois in Ziai 2004: 147)

2.3. Disconti­nuities

The most obvious break line between colonial and development discourse is the official rejection of colonial imperialism and explicit racism by developmentalists. Certain terms such as “race” and “civilization” have almost completely vanished after the end of the colonial era and have been replaced by different terms such as “underdeveloped” (cf. Ziai 2008: 200 ff.) “Overall, then, there has been a political imperative to distance the international aid industry from the colonial encounter so as to avoid tarnishing what is presented as a humanitarian project far removed from the […] exploitation of the colonial era”. (Kothari 2005: 51) As Kothari argues, this denial of the colonial heritage permitted the newly created development industry to work on and in so-called “Third Wold” countries without being scrutinized. (cf. Kothari 2005: 62) However, Brigg points out that development cannot simply be understood as an extension if colonialism, as some post-development authors claim. She argues that the mechanisms of power have considerably altered from a directly repressive form of sovereign power to what Foucault calls ‘biopower’ which mobilizes aspirations and interests of “Third World” subjects and states. (cf. Brigg 2002: 423 f.) Therefore, in contrast to colonial discourse, development discourse is to a much stronger degree aimed at forming identities in the South that would voluntarily support a world order in favour of the metropolises. (cf. Ziai 2006: 38 f.) This discursive and political change already took place during the last years of colonial rule when it became clear that the colonial empires could no longer be sustained by direct force: “colonial officials, along with anticolonial nationalist leaders, began to promote the welfare and benefit of the colonies.” (Brigg 2002: 423 f.) Thus, the newly created development discourse deviated in several ways from the old colonial paradigm: people living in from then on so called “development countries” were awarded the capability to govern themselves and hence peoples’ right of self-determination and human rights were unreservedly approved (at least on the discursive level.) However, Ziai points out that this new equality of people is limited: “Everybody is equal, only some are not yet as advanced as others on the universal development-path of humankind: They are “underdeveloped.”.” (Ziai 2006: 36 f., translation by author) Yet due to the delegitimization of biological racism, development discourse does not speak about “underdeveloped” peoples or persons, but rather about underdeveloped countries or regions. (cf. Ziai 2006: 37) ”‘Development’ was in this respect crucial in reconfiguring the global identity of ex-colonies in a way that was incorporative and universalistic yet still hierarchical”. (Power 2006: 29)

Nevertheless, it should not be denied that development discourse has become a very diverse field formed by different actors. “Clearly, individuals in development studies today are far more diverse in terms of gender, class and ethnicity than were the colonial officers, and this has necessarily meant an opening up of the field and the emergence of multiple strands of thought and practice”. (Kothari 2005: 63)

2.4. Continuities

In the following section I would like to focus on the various facets of colonial continuities in development discourse which can be detected in the basic discursive structure as well as in the socio-technical and the philosophical elements. The different aspects of colonial continuities are very complex and interweaved, but I will try to structure them in a comprehensive way.

2.4.1. Hierarchic Dichotomies

As I already explained above, the colonial vocabulary of ‘civilization’ and ‘race’ has vanished in the era of development. However, the dualistic structure of colonial discourse still prevails and now appears in new terms: development / underdevelopment, First / Third World, modernity / tradition, technology / handcraft, rationality / irrationality, etc. As Kothari argues by quoting Edward Said: “ …‘throughout the exchange between European’s and their “others” … the one idea that has scarcely varied is that there is an “us” and “them”, each quite settled, clear, unassailably self-evident’.” (Kothari 2006: 12) Although these binary distinctions have been partly dissolved, confounded and challenged, we can assert that the omnipresent advertisement and media constantly reproduce images of the white development expert and the helpless black children thus presenting people living in the ‘South’ as passive, incapable of action and depending on western donors. (cf. Ziai 2008: 200 ff.) Looking at contemporary history books used in schools, the basic assumption becomes evident that in the past Europe has shown much more progress than most other civilizations and therefore is fundamentally superior. (cf. Blaut 1993: 30) Derived from the colonial paradigm, development places the West “in hierarchical opposition to other areas of the globe which remained ‘traditional’ […] less scientific, less secular, less rational, less individualist, and less democratic.” (Manzo in Ziai 2004: 147) These regions (and the people living there) are solely defined by their relation to the West and are consequently constructed as one homogeneous underdeveloped Third World. “In much literature in development there is a tendency to homogenize other cultures; to see non-western cultures as fixed, incomprehensible, recessive and particularistic. […] While specific ethnographic studies have explored cultural habits and dispositions, these have often become utilized in constructing generalized accounts of cultures, which speak, for example, of a singular, and often immutable, ‘African culture’.“ (Kothari 2006: 18) Consequently, following the traditions of colonial discourse development expresses “…the otherness in the name of sameness, reduce[s] the different to the already known, and thus fundamentally escape[s] the task of making sense of other worlds”. (Mudimbe in White 2002: 413)

2.4.2. Evolutionary Paradigm

Despite the fact that today many development studies reject the social evolutionary idea that societies progress from more backward to more modern states, evolutionary classification such as ‘underdeveloped’ or ‘developing’ persist and “globalization is still seen, even by many academics, as a process of modernization whereby the more developed ‘third world’ countries become, the more they will become like the west.” (Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 45) Hence, the deficits of the South can be amended by development which means capitalist economic growth and adopting western practices and norms. On the universal scale of development the West serves as the benchmark, the ideal norm. In order to progress developing countries are in need of knowledge transfer from the West, because they cannot develop on their own. (cf. Ziai 2008: 200 f.) In other words: the colonial ideal of the “European occidental civilization” has been replaced by the “liberal democratic market economy” as the goal of human development (cf. Melber 1994: 32) “International etiquette means that the crude modernisation view of ‘third world’ societies as backward, passive and tradition-bound, static and inert, awaiting the penetration of development from the West, is no longer ‘sayable’ in polite society. But it nevertheless lurks within the ‘discursive bricolage’ of development. And as such it can inform the framework within which intervention takes place”. (White 2002: 417 f.)

2.4.3. White Expertise – Knowledge as Power

As I already explained above, development discourse underlines the necessity of western knowledge for the development process, thus implying development assistance and education of southern elites in the ‘North’. As White points out, development is closely linked with western education – clearly illustrated by the fact that development studies courses are mostly taught in ‘First World’ universities. (cf. White 2002: 410) Hence, the ‘North’ has and constantly produces knowledge about the ‘South’ and even teaches ‘Third World’ citizens about their own societies, whereas the idea that knowledge form the ‘South’ could be useful to solve problems of the ‘North’ still seems absurd to most people. (cf. Ziai 2008: 207) We can clearly recognize the analogies to colonial discourse: “[T]his relationship of tutelage extends far beyond the institutions of formal education. It is in fact a dominant idiom underlying much of what is said and done in development. And why is this so familiar? It is, of course, a classic way in which colonial racism imagined black–white relations”. (White 2002: 410) Therefore, it can be argued that terms such as “development expert”, “consultant” or “expatriate” are not neutral but racialized (and gendered) in the sense that they are primarily associated with white (and male) persons. Despite newer tendencies within a participatory approach to value experiences and knowledge of ‘local’ persons, it is still assumed that some kind of intervention by development organizations is necessary e.g. in the form of “facilitators” or “moderators”. (cf. Kothari 2006: 16) This means that although there has been a new rhetoric of respect for “indigenous” expertise with some NGOs even promoting knowledge exchange from ‘South to South’, knowledge is partly still ranked by its source instead of by its utility. (Crewe, Piyanthi 2006: 45)

Furthermore, expertise in development organizations (as in other businesses) is often associated with certain symbolic means: As Crewe and Priyanthi observe, development experts working abroad (expatriates) tend to display their expertise by “…quoting recent international publications and referring to their own work in other regions of the world”, using the latest technical equipment etc. For Southern experts the access to these symbols of expertise, contacts and information tends to be limited (due to visa restrictions and financial limits). (Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 51) “This has leads to a failure to recognize the diverse world of ideologies and aspirations and the ability of ‘recipients’ of aid to manage resources on their own, as well as a tendency to ignore non-western conceptions of, for example, ‘freedom’, ‘justice’ or, indeed, ‘development’.” (Kothari 2006: 16)

Within the framework of the development industry people living in ‘Third World’ countries become objects of knowledge, interventions, management and research. Through the collection of a multitude of data about the ‘Third World’ subjects by western development agencies makes them visible in order to evaluate them against the norm of development. (cf. Brigg 2002: 430) It can be argued that the colonial idea of ‘trusteeship’ has been handed over from colonial officers to ‘development experts’. (cf. Ziai 2008: 207)

2.4.4. Racism

“[R]ather than indicating its irrelevance, the silence on race is a determining silence that both masks and marks its centrality to the development project.” (White 2002: 408)

As this quotation explains, the term ‘racism’ is not present in discussions about development and is generally perceived as contrary to the idea of development assistance. (cf. Ziai 2008: 91) Even the UN-sponsored World Conference against Racism (WCAR) identified racism as a problem within regions, “marking off-limits consideration of relations between North and South” (White 2002: 407, emphasis in original). Obviously the assumption prevails that “development takes place in non-racialized spaces and outside of racialized histories.” (Kothari 2006: 9) This opinion is fostered by the fact that development discourse has been more or less cleansed from the openly racist vocabulary and statements of the old colonial discourse. “[I]t is striking how quickly discussion of racial superiority was banned from colonial vocabularies in the 1940s”. (Cooper in Kothari 2006: 11) However, White argues that “certain terms in development discourse such as “tribalism”, “ethnicity”, “tradition”, “religion” and perhaps pre-eminently “culture” […] may do some work at some times, in standing in for race”. (White 2002: 407). This means that despite the new politically correct language of development discourse, racist ideas still lurk beneath the surface. Ideas about cultural difference substituted those based on racialized understandings, taking a similar form as earlier arguments about ‘race’. “The difference was that cultural change seemed open to the individual, but Africans who chose not to make the transition were seen as willfully obstructionist rather than quaintly backward.”(Cooper in Kothari 2006: 11). Racialized arguments appear where social problems are not explained by political or socio-economic factors, but are attributed to mentalities or cultures. (cf. Ziai 2008: 209) Understanding the origins of ‘underdevelopment’ as embedded within societies / cultures led to increasing studies on corruption, poor governance and interethnic conflict. (cf. Kothari 2006: 19) “Crewe and Harrison (1998) give examples of how development discourses often problematize ‘locals’: their characters (‘Nepalis are friendly but lazy’), their morals (generalizations about corruption in the South and blindness to its existence elsewhere), their traditions (‘Muslims are anti-women’) and their knowledge (‘locals lack know-how’)” (Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 46) To give a more specific example: discussions about the spread of HIV/AIDS in Africa have been increasingly racialized, describing Africans as promiscuous and irresponsible (in contrast to the western people). Obviously these depictions very much resemble colonial ideas about the uncontrolled sexuality of Africans. “The legacy of these representations of sexual practices arguably lies in colonial narratives of, for example, desire and the exotic”. (Kothari 2006: 19) Another example is the debate about ‘failed states’ in the ‘Third World’ which are characterized by corrupt and violent political culture – in contrast of course to non-corrupt Western politicians. (cf. Ziai 2008: 209) Altogether it is possible to identify a tendency to see donors as initiating, reliable and superior whereas recipients are considered to be more passive, unreliable and inadequate. (cf. Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 46)

Some critical authors write about their personal experiences in the development industry and demonstrate how the whole framework is marked by racist structures. “What I was seeing went far beyond individual acts of prejudice or discrimination to a whole system in which advantage and disadvantage were patterned by race”. (White 2002: 409) Crewe and Priyanthi did interviews with several staff members of international development agencies and highlight how racist ideas shape the interactions within development projects. They quote a manager of European donor agency who said in 2004: “[W]e have to research programmes managed by organisations in the South and they are both a disaster. I mean, it is nothing racial, it is just that they don’t work at that analytical level. We need an expatriate for the conceptual thinking, then the local consultant can do more of the running around for you”. (Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 45) Although this manager (who has been working in development for over 20 years) does not express explicit racism in terms of hostility, “his assumptions about analytical thinking, and his denial of the relevance of race, echo a prevailing preconception that Euro-Americans are capable of a higher level of abstraction” and thus show striking parallels with colonial concepts. (Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 45) As White writes about her personal experience in development projects: “[M]y whiteness opened me doors, jumped me queues, filled me plates and invited me to speak”. (White 2002: 408). However, quoting a white development worker Kothari makes it clear that “…people don’t really believe that I am more intelligent and more knowledgeable because I am white, what they do believe is that I will have greater access to power, to decisionmakers and to those who can get things done”. (Kothari 2006: 16) Hence, racist ideas virtually reproduce themselves: people favour persons who are perceived as being white for important positions, not because they necessarily consider them to be more intelligent but rather because of the privileged positions of most ‘white’ persons. (cf. Kothari 2006: 12 ff.) Kothari also quotes a ‘black’ development worker talking about his experiences within an NGO in Zimbabwe: “If you want your organization’s plans to be approved quickly or you need to raise funds, you are better off appointing a white director”. (Kothari 1006b: 16) He explains that regardless of experience and expertise ‘white’ persons generally have better access to international funding, because they are part of the “expatriate community” and therefore can easily connect with certain groups, which is important for building contacts with “white power holders.” (Kothari 2006: 16) However, racist stereotypes often are even internalized by ‘black’ persons: “‘Local counterparts’ have been visibly disappointed when they realized that their expatriate consultant was not white. This is reflective of what Ngugi calls the ‘colonization of the mind’ (1986) whereby for some formerly colonized people, whiteness becomes associated with high cultural values and the west with modernity and progress”. (Kothari 1006b: 15 f.)

2.4.5. Unequal Power Relations

“Critically, it is this overwhelming depiction of beneficence (as it was for the missionaries of old) that obscures relationships of power more generally, and in particular ‘race’, while delimiting attempts to theorize concepts of ‘race’ in development praxis”. (Kothari 2006: 18)

As Kothari argues the idea of development aid as an utterly “good deed” conceals the unequal power relations (of which racism is but one aspect) within the development system. As I already mentioned above ‘expatriates’ who are mostly ‘white’ persons play an important role in development practice. Therefore donor organizations (and their countries of origin) have a strong presence and power to intervene in recipient countries. According to Crewe’s and Priyanthi’s ob­servations, organizational structures within most development organizations assure that critical decision-making processes remain in the hands of the aid-givers. (cf. Crewe, Priyanthi 2006 2006: 47 f.) „Rather than choosing beneficiaries and letting them pick their own priorities, they follow the opposite procedure, often using Euro-American consultants to justify their decisions. They also control reporting on success and failure and this mastery over history consolidates their power for the future”. (Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 51) The unequal power relations partly rely on a degree of segregation between expatriates and ‘local’ staff members. (cf. Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 47 f.) The most obvious separation is the fact that many Western expatriates live in disjoined or even gated communities and often also prefer to work and socialize in “enclavic environments”. (Kothari 2006: 17) The significance of private and social life should not be underestimated since social networks are a crucial “source of information about funding, employment opportunities, and potential for collaboration. When you consider how this context of social separation is reinforced by various rituals that regulate development encounters in the professional sphere – through language, timing, place, consultation rituals and symbols – the systems of exclusion can be better understood.” (Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 49 f.)

As in many international networks, the dominant language in the development industry is English (or sometimes French or Spanish). When people of different nationalities are present, discussions are usually held in English even with English speakers being the minority. Within the development network certain technical terms as well as acronyms and jargon words which are used by ‘insiders’ become dominant in crucial moments. Being a native-speaker of the language used in meetings gives persons a more powerful position in debates. Of course this not only advantages persons from Europe and the US, but also people from Africa, Asia and Latin America who are fluent in English. (Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 50)

Concerning the time and place of committee meetings, the fact that critical decision making processes often take place last minute in donor headquarters in the USA or Europe means that persons from ‘Third World’ countries often cannot be present at these meetings (either because they do not live close or because travel is not viable for them). (cf. Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 51)

Regarding new organizational forms such as participatory approaches, Crewe and Priyanthi state that these “have allowed agencies to develop techniques for appearing democratic and accountable while retaining control over critical decision points”. (Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 51) Informal structures and ritualised consultation processes function to silence the objections of mostly ‘non-white’ participants. As a matter of course, participatory approaches are still highly preferable to organizational forms that do not allow for any consultation at all. However, the authors argue that consultation rituals should be analysed with respect to informal power relations in order to ensure that voices of aid recipients are in the centre of attention rather than in the periphery.

“After all, development encounters are embedded within unequal power relationships between givers and receivers, and to pretend to treat unequals as if they are equals is a particularly effective way to perpetuate inequality”. (Mandal Commission, as quoted in Crewe, Priyanthi 2006: 51)

3. Bibliography

• Blaut, James M. (1993): The Colonizer’s Model of the World. Geographic Diffusionism and Eurocentric History. New York: Guildford Press
• Brigg, Morgan (2002): Post-development, Foucault and the colonisation metaphor. In: Third World Quarterly. Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 421–436
• Crewe, Emma; Fernando, Priyanthi (2006): The elephant in the room: racism in representations, relationships and rituals. In: Progress in Development Studies 6, 1, pp. 40–54
• DAC (2008): Aid Statistics. Donor Aid Charts, available online.
• Esteva, G. (1992): Development. In: Sachs, W. (ed. 1992): The Development Dictionary. A Guide to Knowledge as Power. London: Zed Books, pp. 6–25
• Gomes, Bea (2006): Geber-Empfänger-Beziehungen: Partnerschaften und Hierarchien. In: Gomes, Bea; Maral-Hanak, Irmi; Schicho, Walter (Hg.): Entwicklungszu­sammenarbeit. Akteure, Handlungsmuster und Interessen. Wien: Mandelbaum Verlag
• Hall, Stuart (1992) “The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power”, in Stuart Hall and Bram Gieben, (eds.): Formations of Modernity. Open University/Polity Press, pp. 275–331.
• Kothari, Uma (2005): From colonial administration to development studies: a post-colonial critique of the history of development studies. In: ibid. (ed.): A Radical History of Development Studies. Individuals, Institutions, Ideologies. London: Zed Books, pp. 47– 66
• Kothari, Uma (2006): An agenda for thinking about ‘race’ in development. In: Progress in Development Studies 2006 6: 9, pp. 9–23
• Melber, Henning (1992): Der Weißheit letzter Schluß. Rassismus und kolonialer Blick. Frankfurt: Brandes & Apsel Verlag
• Melber, Henning (1994): Rassismus und Eurozentrismus als Phänomene kolonialistischer Betrachtungsweise. In: Geiger, Klaus (1994): Rassismus und Ausländerfein­dlichkeit in Deutschland. Beiträge zu ihrer Erforschung. Kassel: Geshamthochschu­le Kassel
• Osterhammel, Jürgen (1995): Kolonialismus. Geschichte – Formen – Folgen. München: Verlag C. H. Beck
• Power, Marcus (2006): Anti-racism, deconstruction and ‘overdevelopment’. In: Progress in Development Studies 6, 1, pp. 24– 39
• Rattansi, Ali (2007): Racism. A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press
• Sachs, W. (1995): Introduction in: Sachs, W. (ed. 1995): The Development Dictionary. A Guide to Knowledge as Power. London: Zed Books, pp. 1–5
• Sonderegger, Arno (2008): Geschichte und Gedenken im Banne des Eurozentrismus. In: Gomes, Bea; Schicho, Walter;
• Sonderegger, Arno (2008): Rassismus. Beiträge zu einem vielschichtien Phänomen. 45–72
• White, Sarah (2002): Thinking race, thinking development. In: Third World Quarterly, Vol 23, No 3, pp 407 – 419
• Ziai, Aram (2004): Entwicklung als Ideologie? Das klassische Entwicklungspa­radigma und die Post-Development-Kritik. Ein Beitrag zur Analyse des Entwicklungsdis­kurses. Hamburg: Deutsches Übersee-Institut.
• Ziai, Aram (2006): Zwischen Global Governance und Post-Development. Entwicklungspolitik aus dirskursanaly­tischer Perspektive. Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot
• Ziai, Aram (2008): Rassismus und Entwicklungszu­sammenarbeit. In: Gomes, Bea; Schicho, Walter; Sonderegger, Arno (2008): Rassismus. Beiträge zu einem vielschichtien Phänomen. 191–213

The author is a political science student at the University of Vienna.

• Nacházíte se:
  • Úvodní stránka
  • » Články
  • » Colonial (Dis-)Continuities in Development Discourse and Practice

 

purchase Brafix without rx needed purchase Cipro 250 mg mastercard without where to buy generic Nizoral online without a rx no prescriptions needed for Prozac buy Isotretinoin with amex purchase Accutane mastercard online Buy finasteride 1 mg mastercard canada how to buy Hydrea online without rx buy Cipro 750 mg cheapest Propecia available online purchase Norvasc amex online without rx purchase Augmentin pay pal online without prescription order Seroquel without rx from us pharmacy buy Omnicef cod next day delivery Buy finasteride 1 mg mastercard with amex Buy accutane cheap online accutane 40 mg moisturizer buy Zyprexa cod next day delivery Buy accutane canada Cystone shipped cash on buy Lisinopril 10 mg with amex overnight Accutane 40 mg without a rx cheap order rx Indocin buy Avodart online without rx buy Arimidex buy cheap online pharmacy Lasix 100 mg mastercard Buy accutane with visa purchase Prozac no visa without prescription Cipro 250 mg mastercard with free fedex overnight purchasing Accupril without a script Accutane mastercard hair testing no prescription Elimite with fedex purchase Imitrex over the counter cod overnight order Plendil no visa Cardizem from canada purchase Levaquin online no membership overnight shipping overnight Aciphex c.o.d Protonix non prescription for next day delivery cheapCipro 1000 mg mastercard by money order purchase Zelnorm without rx to ship overnight purchase Evista online without prescription ordering Accutane 40 mg over the counter purchase Erectalis amex online without prescription purchase Requip mastercard in South Australia buy Atrovent no visa online without rx Levlen u.p.s shipping cod buy online Prandin without rx cheap purchase Accutane 10 mg mastercard buy Aciphex tablets without rx buy Accutane 30 mg online without prescription purchase Lotensin online with overnight delivery purchase Nexium usa cod 1 mg Arimidex where can i buy Protonix without a rx Lotrisone without rx overnight shipping order cheapest online Relafen fedex Retin-a overnight without a rx i want to buy Prograf without a perscription purchase Prozac no visa without prescription how to order Apcalis sx online without a rx buy Copegus without a prescription overnight delivery Atrovent cheap overnight fedex buy cheap generic Accutane mastercard online purchasing Buspar without a script i want to buy Cardizem without a perscription order Adalat without rx needed buy Avodart paypal without rx order Zantac cheap overnight purchase Atarax without prescription to ship overnight where can i purchase Synthroid no rx Naprosyn without prescription medications buy Femara without a rx overnight delivery order Prevacid cheap overnight Abilify Buy Without a Prescription|where can i buy Abilify|free Abilify samples|Abilify use with alcohol|generic Abilify canada buy how to|Abilify (Aripiprazole) hcl tablets|buy Abilify free consultation|Abilify drug effects|Abilify drug|buy Abilify in Lethbridge|Abilify (Aripiprazole) buy Abilify (Aripiprazole) online order Abilify (Aripiprazole)|Abilify Buy Without a Prescription|achat Abilify (Aripiprazole)|Abilify cash on delivery|Abilify cheapest us price buy online|order cheap Abilify (Aripiprazole) online|buy Abilify online in Plymouth|Abilify Buy Without a Prescription|lowest price of Abilify (Aripiprazole)|expired Abilify (Aripiprazole) still safe|Abilify Abilify online online|how to buy Abilify online|generic Abilify cheap|Abilify buy Abilify online order Abilify|generic Abilify|Abilify (Aripiprazole) Buy Without a Prescription|Abilify pharmacy|cheap Abilify buy online|buy Abilify in Victoria| how to order Avapro online without a rx purchase Proscar online order Tenormin without a rx overnight shipping order Dostinex order amex buy Accutane 20 mg mastercard in england Accutane 10 mg mastercard online without prescription Canada overnight Oxytrol c.o.d where can i purchase Pletal no rx Mestinon delivered overnight Isotretinoin buy canada pharmacy accutane 40 mg moisterizer Claritin online no rx overnight purchase Mevacor online no membership overnight shipping Zanaflex fedex buy 10 mg nolvadex mastercard purchase online rx Lanoxin without Cardizem without rx medications Buy dreampharmaceuticals online Lasix buy 10mg Isotretinoin mastercard buy actos 15mg without prescription order cheapest online Arava buying Femara online without rx buy in Proscar uk order Omnicef usa cod Cytotec delivered overnight free Zyvox order Lasix mastercard in New Orleans Buy Accutane now where can i purchase Nizoral online how to buy Zoloft online without a rx purchase Prinivil without buying Prograf online without rx Lotrisone with overnight fedex overnight Mircette without a rx buy rx Accutane 30 mg without Eulexin online order saturday delivery where to purchase generic Lynoral online without a prescription purchase Plavix cod next day delivery no prescription Mevacor cod delivery buy cheap fedex Plendil where to buy generic Deltasone online without a rx purchase online Cytotec without prescription purchase Cipro 250 mg mastercard without a prescription online buy cheap Arimidex with dr. prescription Claritin online overnight delivery cod purchase Zyprexa money purchase where can i purchase Atrovent no rx Plavix without prescription overnight shipping buy rx Lamictal without fedex Zyloprim overnight without a prescription Accutane 30 mg without a perscription order Benemid online next day delivery buy Cymbalta without rx where to purchase generic Erectalis online without a rx order overnight Celexa buy online Isoptin without rx purchase online Lexapro without rx i want to buy Casodex without a perscription Buy finasteride 1 mg mastercard online order buy Requip mastercard purchase online Isotretionin 20 mg mastercard without rx buy Lotensin without rx buy Prograf no visa online without rx order Premarin for cash on delivery order Atrovent online with overnight delivery buy Topamax without buy nolvadex mastercard buy Arimidex cod buy no perscription Inderal Flonase pharmacy order Hydrea online with overnight delivery order Ponstel without a rx overnight shipping purchase online prescription Buspar without how to purchase Brafix online without a prescription purchase cheap prescription Zithromax Keftab fedex no prescription Buy accutane line purchase online prescription Mevacor purchase Prilosec without prescription from us pharmacy order Lamictal cheap overnight buy Augmentin without a rx overnight delivery Buy Proscar now Accutane 10 mg mastercard no prescription required ordering Lipitor without a script Cystone online buy saturday delivery Buy Proscar on the net safety order Loxitane order online Risperdal without prescription how to purchase Accutane 40 mg visa online order|order no online rx Accutane 40 mg visa|buy Accutane 40 mg visa no prescription cheap|Accutane 40 mg visa non prescription) buy Accutane 10 mg mastercard online without rx purchase Nolvadex 10 mg mastercard no visa without prescription cheapest Copegus available online where can i purchase Zantac online buy Arava amex online without prescription buy Cipro where can i purchase Prometrium online purchase online Adalat without rx purchase Amoxil online no membership order Remeron no visa purchase online prescription Cardizem without Proscar best buy Famvir fedex Norvasc online order saturday delivery purchase Nolvadex 10 mg mastercard no visa online without prescription no prescription Pravachol cod delivery order Micardis pay pal online without rx Finpecia buy online purchase Lotensin without prescription to ship overnight purchase Prednisone online no membership purchase Glucophage without a rx online where can i buy Pravachol online ordering Tricor over the counter buy discount Dostinex online Lamisil without rx overnight shipping Buy discount accutane mastercard line order Lincocin overnight delivery accutane 40 mg blood test order Fosamax overnight cheap buy Prinivil online overseas order cheap overnight Zithromax order overnight Zocor purchase Lasix 100 mg mastercard without prescription to ship overnight where to purchase generic Atarax online without a rx purchase Nolvadex 10 mg mastercard without a rx online buying Prednisone over the counter buy Lincocin without rx overnight Claritin without a rx cheapCipro 750 mg mastercard no rx Accutane mastercard day 8 Buy Proscar online consultation lowest price order Relafen without rx needed no rx Lasix 100 mg mastercard with fedex Arimidex mexico overnight Exelon without a rx purchase Elavil without prescription from us pharmacy Crestor purchased online without prescription discount Proscar order Pravachol free next day airPravachol on line buy rx Noroxin without purchase Aldactone prescription online buying Paxil online without rx Apcalis sx online buy saturday delivery purchase no perscription Prednisone Prandin pharmacy Diovan without prescription medications Monoket without prescription shipped overnight express purchase Aristocort without a prescription overnight shipping buy Capoten amex online purchase Seroquel cod delivery cod delivery Accutane 30 mg order buy Arimidex online fedex Effexor overnight without a rx where to purchase generic Maxaquin online without a prescription buy Lasix mastercard online no membership Proventil without prescription overnight shipping Pravachol overnight delivery fed ex Plendil cheap overnight fedex Prilosec without a perscription buy Crestor without a rx overnight shipping purchase rx Paxil without buy Lasix mastercard in Sydney purchase Celebrex amex online without rx purchase Buspar over the counter cod overnight buy abana mastercard no visa online without prescription where can i purchase Isotretionin online fedex Buspar overnight without a prescription Propecia online purchase best buy Finpecia mastercard purchase cheap prescription Lamictal Tricor cod next day delivery purchasing Seroquel with overnight delivery Neurontin online without prescription buy Proscar without doctor buy Ventolin paypal without rx purchase Aceon without rx needed order Plendil overnight delivery Cipro 250 mg mastercard shipped by cash on delivery order Effexor online next day delivery buy Topamax amex online without prescription Myambutol overnight without rx saturday delivery mastercard accutane 20 mg(isotretinoin cod|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg without prescription needed|canadian pharmacy mastercard accutane 20 mg|buy cheapest mastercard accutane 20 mg|how to get mastercard accutane 20 mg perscription|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg no doctor|ordering mastercard accutane 20 mg online without rx|mastercard accutane 20 mg to buy|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg without a rx online|how to purchase mastercard accutane 20 mg online without a rx|?lick here to order mastercard accutane 20 mg online|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg online by cod|where to purchase generic mastercard accutane 20 mg online without a rx|how to order mastercard accutane 20 mg online without prescription|buy cheap mastercard accutane 20 mg under without rx|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg without a prescription overnight delivery|mastercard accutane 20 mg(isotretinoin) overnight no script|buy ma purchase online rx Lasix 100 mg mastercard without order Atarax no visa Motrin online no rx overnight cheap order rx Ponstel Rocaltrol free consultation fedex overnight delivery order online Lexapro without prescription purchase Atrovent pay pal online without prescription Crestor without prescription medications online prescription Arimidex Vasotec overnight delivery fed ex purchase Isotretionin 20 mg mastercard without canadian prescriptions Accutane 40 mg purchase online prescription Brahmi purchase Accutane mastercard on line Noroxin purchased online without prescription purchaseCipro 1000 mg mastercard without a prescription online purchase Atarax without rx to ship overnight purchase Revia no scams Finasteride mastercard order online Nimotop without prescription medications how to order Famvir online without a rx purchase Revia no visa online without prescription Buy accutane visa Buy accutane with a visa buy online rx Diovan without Cytoxan pharmacy purchase online rx Lopid without Buy accutane master card order Amoxil without a prescription overnight shipping canadian prescriptions Oxytrol buy 40 mg Accutane mastercard in Vancouver buy 40 mg Accutane mastercard online without a prescription and no membership Lasix mastercard canada where can i buy Prevacid online order Famvir usa cod buy Casodex paypal without rx where can i buy Cymbalta without a rx buy cheap fedex Fosamax where to purchase generic Lynoral online without a prescription Maxalt pharmacy where to buy generic Lamictal online without a prescription Order Accutane 10 mg mastercard online without a prescription buy Imitrex without a prescription overnight delivery buy Cipro master card i want to buy Buspar without a perscription buy online Zestril without rx how to purchase mastercard accutane 20 mg online without prescription|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg tablets without prescription|ordering mastercard accutane 20 mg online reliable|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg|how to buy mastercard accutane 20 mg online without a rx|no prescription required mastercard accutane 20 mg|order no online rx mastercard accutane 20 mg|purchase online rx mastercard accutane 20 mg without|cheap overnight mastercard accutane 20 mg|purchase cheap discount online mastercard accutane 20 mg|mastercard accutane 20 mg non prescription fedex overnight free|mastercard accutane 20 mg without a rx|how to buy mastercard accutane 20 mg online without prescript ion|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg without a prescript ion overnight delivery|aan agcode buy mastercard accutane 20 mg|purchase mastercard accutane 20 mg tablets without rx|where to buy mastercard accutane 20 mg no rx no fees|buy master where can i purchase Zoloft no rx purchase online rx Relafen without buy Kamagra without a rx overnight delivery Lasix 100 mg mastercard fedex no prescription purchasing Serophene without a script Benemid buy fedex how to order Exelon online without a rx Paxil orderd online without prescription accutane 40 mg attorney colorado purchase cheap online Acticin Lioresal shipped cash on Buy discount accutane order Requip mastercard in Alabama buy Hydrea next day delivery Vermox delivered overnight buy actos 15mg without prescription order Retin-a pharmacy purchase Adalat pay pal online without rx purchasing Norvasc without a script order Amoxil usa cod Oxytrol non rx fedex overnight free order cheapest online Zyloprim accutane 40 mg suicide Buy line accutane buy generic Accutane 20 mg mastercard online purchase Detrol pay pal online without prescription Prinivil without prescription medications buy Zyvox without Zithromax buy fedex purchasing Omnicef without a script Cipro 250 mg mastercard shipped cash on purchase online prescription Intagra without buying Plavix over the counter purchase Cephalexin amex online without prescription purchase Rocaltrol over the counter cod overnight purchase Elimite without buy online Zanaflex without rx purchase online prescription Aricept without Generic 40 mg Accutane legal in Canada Singulair online overnight delivery cod how to order Glucophage online without a rx how to get a Calan rx Buy cheapest accutane and accutane Amaryl u.p.s shipping cod no rx cod Noroxin buy Exelon without prescription free Noroxin purchase Requip mastercard on line purchasing Clarinex online without prescription order Finasteride usa cod Buy accutane visa purchase Isotretionin 20 mg mastercard cod delivery accutane 40 mg progress Coreg online purchase buy Prilosec paypal without rx purchase Mestinon no visa online without prescription buy Requip mastercard in Vancouver where can i purchase Motrin online order Aldactone amex online without prescription where can i buy Arimidex online without a prescription Lotensin overnight no consult buy no perscription Atarax buy Indocin next day delivery Accutane mastercard with no prescriptions order Accupril pharmacy purchase online prescription Flonase without Prandin from canada buy Mircette without a rx overnight shipping get Lasix mastercard buy Lotensin offshore no prescription fedex purchase Naprosyn no prescription cheap canadian prescriptions Vermox Feldene delivered overnight order overnight Lasix 100 mg mastercard purchase Lincocin without prescription to ship overnight where to buy generic Motrin online without a rx purchase Flomax without prescription to ship overnight order cheap overnight Zyrtec cheapest Lexapro available online Buy accutane in united states online Maxalt u.p.s shipping cod buying Eulexin over the counter buy actos no prescription Cipro 250 mg mastercard without rx medications buy Maxaquin online without rx buy Isotretinoin 20 mg overnight delivery Accutane 20 mg mastercard how long until result Benemid shipped cash on how to get a Accupril rx buy Brahmi no visa online without prescription buy abana mastercard amex online without prescription where can i purchase Pravachol online order Ventolin usa cod buy online rx Hydrea without accutane 5 mg mastercard prescription free prescription Accutane mastercard free shipping buy Oxytrol online overseas purchase Nolvadex 20 mg without prescription to ship overnight Serophene cod next day delivery Seroquel fedex purchase Zyvox without buy Requip Myambutol non rx fedex overnight free purchase Elimite without prescription needed buy Confido paypal without rx no prescriptions needed for Benemid buy Depakote cod next day delivery purchase accutane 40 mg visa saturday shipping Buy cheap accutane cheap purchase Cardizem buy Plavix tablets without rx buy Pamelor without prescription Buy Proscar 5 mg online how to purchase Accupril online without rx buy Cipro line where can i purchase Cephalexin without a prescription buy Arimidex no script purchasing Seroquel online without prescription order Arava no visa without rx buy Cystone no visa online without prescription Lioresal overnight without rx purchase Nizoral without rx to ship overnight Pravachol without rx medications purchase Differin usa cod Aricept without prescription medications Diovan overnight delivery fed ex purchase Coreg without prescription buy Amaryl offshore no prescription fedex order Serophene pharmacy Prevacid overnight delivery fed ex buy cheap online pharmacy Pletal order Inderal amex online without prescription no rx Arimidex purchase Dilantin cod next day delivery how to order Micardis online without a prescription buy Seroquel without rx from us pharmacy order Monoket usa cod no rx Femara with fedex buy cheap Abilify (Aripiprazole from canadian pharmacy|Abilify use with alcohol|Abilify and suboxone|cheap Abilify (Aripiprazole) online|Abilify malaysia|Abilify (Aripiprazole) Buy Without a Prescription|buy Abilify without a rx|Abilify (Aripiprazole) sale|Buying Without a Prescription Abilify Online|Abilify prix|Abilify with physician consult cod|expired Abilify (Aripiprazole) still safe|Abilify Buy Without a Prescription|generic Abilify cheap|buy Abilify in Kingston|cheap Abilify buy online|Abilify (Aripiprazole) Buy Without a Prescription|where can i buy Abilify|Abilify Buy Without a Prescription|Abilify drug effects|coumadin Abilify (Aripiprazole)|buy Abilify (Aripiprazole) online no prescription|buy Abilify online in Plymouth|Purchase Abilify Medication|Abilify cheapest us price buy online|buy Abilify (Aripiprazole) online with a debit card|free Abilify samples|order cheap Abilify (Aripiprazole) on no rx Diovan with fedex purchase Lasix mastercard in Vancouver buy Pletal amex online without rx Buy accutane mastercard now Buy generic accutane mastercard online order accutane 5 mg mastercard online without a prescription purchase Effexor cod next day delivery purchase Seroquel online with overnight delivery Prometrium overnight delivery fed ex Prandin orderd online without prescription purchase Loxitane visa Buy line Accutane no rx Augmentin with fedex purchase online Augmentin without prescription purchase Zocor pay pal online without prescription Naprosyn online order saturday delivery Buy Proscar online 5 mg amex buy Mobic pay pal without prescription what is the cost of the prescription accutane 5 mg mastercard Cytotec non prescription for next day delivery Zithromax without prescription overnight shipping Geodon without prescription overnight shipping order Premarin without a rx overnight shipping purchase Proventil usa cod buy Diovan without buy Intagra amex online purchase Keftab no visa online without prescription purchase Copegus without a rx online order overnight Relafen how to buy Lexapro online without rx cheap Amaryl no rx purchase Lamictal amex online without prescription buy no perscription Zelnorm fedex Lozol without priscription buy nolvadex with visa purchase Zoloft prescription online order Zovirax overnight delivery Buy accutane on line amex cheap order rx Cordarone how to purchase Detrol online without rx Cipro 250 mg mastercard pharmacy order Omnicef cheap overnight purchase Isotretionin pay pal online without prescription Buspar with overnight fedex order Myambutol online with overnight delivery how to buy Motrin online without rx purchasing Protonix online without prescription Cephalexin with overnight fedex purchase no perscription Aceon buy Zyloprim without a prescription overnight delivery order cheap overnight Zestril purchase Pamelor pay pal online without prescription order Accupril cash on delivery Fedex abilify without prescription Atacand without prescription medications buy on line Requip Buspar fedex Paxil from canada where to buy generic Casodex online without a rx Buy accutane 20mg purchase Nimotop online without prescription Order cheap Abana on line buy Topamax no visa online without rx Proscar free saturday delivery purchase rx Diflucan without buy Eriacta no visa without rx Accutane 30 mg free overnight fedex delivery Buy online accutane purchase Clarinex paypal without prescription purchase Lioresal no visa online without prescription order Zestril no visa without rx order Loxitane order amex buy Diovan tablets without rx get Requip mastercard cod Cipro 250 mg mastercard without prescription shipped overnight express ordering Endep without a script free Noroxin Buy generic accutane from india purchase Elavil online with overnight delivery Zyloprim with overnight fedex buy Avodart no visa online without prescription buy Maxalt no visa online without rx orderCipro 1000 mg mastercard without rx needed order Singulair without a rx overnight shipping purchase Lisinopril 10 mg mastercard without a prescription online Prinivil online no rx overnight order overnight Cytoxan purchase Avandia prescription online purchase rx Zyvox without buy Accutane 20 mg mastercard online medication Cephalexin without rx overnight shipping Zocor online uk Accupril overnight delivery fed ex where can i buy Lisinopril 10 mg mastercard online purchase Paxil online without script buy online Inderal without rx Seroquel with overnight fedex purchase Zelnorm without a prescription overnight shipping purchase Topamax without prescription needed discount Accutane 30 mg Dostinex without prescription shipped overnight express buy online rx Keftab without Remeron fedex ordering Mevacor over the counter order cheapest online Cystone buy online Erectalis without rx where to buy generic Augmentin online without a prescription purchase Proventil over the counter cod overnight purchase Capoten amex online without rx how to order Eulexin online without a rx order Lozol amex online without prescription ordering Zocor over the counter order Geodon without a rx overnight shipping order prescription free Monoket purchase Isoptin no visa without prescription purchase Adalat cod overnight delivery Zanaflex online overnight delivery cod buy Pamelor without cheapest Lipitor available online where to buy generic Norvasc online without a prescription buy Aldactone amex online Lipitor online purchase Eriacta fedex Oxytrol orderd online without prescription how to order Eriacta online without a prescription purchase Proscar online buy 1 mg Requip fast delivery canadian prescriptions Zithromax purchase Maxaquin online no membership buy Arimidex free consultation Crestor online consultant purchase Aldactone online without prescription best Cytoxan online pill buy Accutane 10 mg mastercard online cod purchase Finpecia over the counter cod overnight where can i purchase Allegra online Depakote fedex buy cheap fedex Aristocort buy Allegra next day delivery Buy accutane online from canada how to buy Zovirax online without a rx purchase Celexa amex online without prescription buy Intagra no visa online without prescription order Amoxil without a prescription overnight shipping buy Accutane 30 mg cheap cod no rx purchase Mircette without a rx online purchase Nexium no prescription cheap order Depakote online next day delivery Lamictal online without prescription buy rx Coreg without purchase Keftab cod delivery order Antabuse without rx from us pharmacy buy generic Accutane mastercard no prescription buy cheap fedex Altace Atarax non prescription for next day delivery best place to order Finasteride mastercard buy Cipro 750 mg without a prescription purchaseCipro 750 mg mastercard free consultation Kamagra orderd online without prescription order Evista without a prescription overnight shipping buy online rx Finasteride without Cardizem online purchase how to order Aceon online without a rx purchase Cordarone online with overnight delivery where can i purchase Danazol without a prescription Intagra delivered overnight safety order Mexitil Buy finasteride 1 mg mastercard online Penisole on line Accutane mastercard overnight buying Prandin over the counter purchase Flonase over the counter cod overnight buy brand Accutane mastercard skin care saturday shipping Colorado purchase Lotensin no scams buy nolvadex 20mg mastercard buy online Elimite without rx purchase Singulair pay pal online without rx Buy Accutane online 40mg mastercard Amoxil without prescription medications buy Isotretionin 20 mg mastercard cod next day delivery purchase Amaryl without prescription Crestor free consultation fedex overnight delivery purchase online prescription Pravachol Proscar non prescription purchase Synthroid online with overnight delivery Fosamax online consultant online purchase Naprosyn Mexitil on line order Isotretionin order amex fedex Aricept overnight without a rx Proscar online order purchase Cardura no visa online without prescription cheap Brahmi no rx Cytotec without prescription shipped overnight express purchase Motilium over the counter cod overnight buy Avodart no visa online without prescription buy Proscar online with a debit card purchasing Imitrex without a script order cheap overnight Intagra order prescription free Celebrex i want to buy Antabuse without a perscription purchase Mobic prescription online ordering Proventil without a script no rx cod Benemid overnight Ansaid c.o.d purchase Cymbalta over the counter cod overnight no prescription Altace cod delivery cheap Danazol by money order purchase Dostinex without a rx online purchase Detrol over the counter cod overnight buy Atrovent online overseas Benemid shipped cash on mastercard accutane 20 mg doctor online c o d|cod mastercard accutane 20 mg no prescription|?lick here to order mastercard accutane 20 mg online|order mastercard accutane 20 mg(isotretinoin) online without prescription|where to order generic mastercard accutane 20 mg online without a rx|aan agcode buy mastercard accutane 20 mg|mastercard accutane 20 mg overnight no script|how to order the cheapest mastercard accutane 20 mg sale mastercard accutane 20 mg united states fda approved|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg|purchase mastercard accutane 20 mg no perscription cod|ordering mastercard accutane 20 mg online without a prescript ion|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg cheap without prescription|buy mastercard accutane 20 mg tablets without prescription|buy ms site mastercard accutane 20 mg|buy cheap online mastercard accutane 20 mg sale mastercard accutane 20 mg usa without prescr's +free pills|online pharmacy how to order finpecia online without a rx buy 1 mg finpecia buy Maxalt amex online without prescription buy Cytotec online from canada Cytotec with overnight fedex how to order Zithromax online without a rx buy brand Proscar buy Cytotec diet pills Valtrex doctor no rx Buspar pharmacy finpecia free Accutane order prescription free Accutane how to order Lasix online without a prescription Accutane overnight no consult zithromax free shipping zithromax overnight delivery order proscar online next day delivery purchase Lasix without a prescription overnight shipping order Flomax cash on delivery buy Accutane on line without a prescription no prescription Accutane with fedex where can i purchase Lasix no rx cheap Lasix by money order buy Valtrex cheap without prescription purchase Lasix online without script order Lasix without a prescription overnight shipping Lasix fedex no prescription Lasix purchased online without prescription online pharmacies Maxalt Proscar drug Valtrex non rx fedex overnight free finpecia from canada buying Prednisone online buy Proscar in united states online buy Cytotec us Cytotec pharmacy Lasix shipped by cash on delivery fedex Lasix overnight without a prescription purchase Zithromax pay pal without rx buy Valtrex online from canada generic 5mg proscar cheap generic proscar 90 5mg purchase online Clomid without prescription buy Clomid cod next day delivery buying Clomid online without rx Clomid without rx medications Clomid buy fedex purchase online prescription Clomid purchase online Clomid without rx buy Clomid offshore no prescription fedex buy rx Clomid without Clomid online buy saturday delivery purchase cheap Cipro cod free fedex Cipro shipped by cash on delivery best Cipro online pill buying Cipro over the counter Strattera buy Strattera buy Cipro next day delivery cheap Cipro by money order where to buy generic Cipro online without a prescription buying Cipro over the counter Cipro from canada Accutane online no prescription Accutane with no prescription overnight shipping us Lasix without prescription Lasix on line no prescription us Lasix without prescription Lasix without a prescription or doctor Valtrex rezept isotretinoin overnight cod no prescription|cheapest isotretinoin|buy isotretinoin cheap overnight) cheap isotretinoin for sale online no prescription required|cheapest isotretinoin|buy isotretinoin cheap overnight) purchase Strattera cod next day delivery buy cheap proscar without prescription Cytotec pill colors buy online buy cheap Maxalt with dr. prescription Prednisone purchased online without prescription purchase online prescription Valtrex without generic valtrex india buy prednisone tablets without rx buy Proscar without a prescription overnight delivery achat Proscar Cytotec from canada purchase cheap Zithromax how to buy Valtrex without a prescription buy Valtrex no scams Orlistat wholesale uk buy Prednisone prednisone order online no membership overnight ordering Arimidex without a script best Arimidex online pill No presciption xenical xenical u.p.s shipping cod buy Zovirax with a mastercard best buy Zovirax Zovirax without rx medications Accutane u.p.s shipping cod finpecia suppliers buspar no s consult buy Valtrex without a rx overnight delivery order Cipro without prescription to ship overnight purchase online Cipro without prescription how to order Accutane online without a prescription purchase Accutane no visa without prescription purchase Accutane cod next day delivery buy discount Zithromax line purchase Flomax online without rx Flomax uk buy finpecia no prescription low cost buy online Accutane without rx buy Accutane without rx from us pharmacy

Mulberry Light Coffee Crocodile Bayswater Bag Designer replica handbags louis vuitton canvas shopper logo bag jessica simpson pacha snakeskin handbag knockoff louis vuitton dentelle discount madonna's favorite white chanel handbag louis vuitton cabas mezzo handbag Salvatore Ferragamo Black Varina Ballet Shoes Louis Vuitton handBag auth louis vuitton murakami rainbow handbag reputable european louis vuitton replicas

© 2011 Global Politics: časopis pro politiku a mezinárodní vztahy (mapa stránek, RSS), ISSN 1213-7685, Design & Koncept © Fleuron, 2006. Redakční systém by ElMiño, 2009.