Politologická analýza a teorie evropské integrace II

Vít Dočkal - 3. Říjen 2004, rubrika Články

Témata: , ,

Analytici F. Schimmelfennig a U. Sedelmeier vychází při výzkumu evropské integrace z pojmu rozšíření. To definují jako proces „stupňovité (gradual) a formální horizontální institucionalizace pravidel a norem organizace“ (Schimmelfennig, F.–Sedelmeier U. 2004: 503). Institucionalizaci dále definují jako proces, v rámci kterého jsou aktivity a interakce sociálních aktérů regulovány stejným normativním vzorcem. Horizontální institucionalizace pak znamená rozšiřování okruhu aktérů, na něž dopadá určitá normativní regulace. Konečně, formální stránku institucionalizace spojují se vznikem konkrétních normativních pramenů (např. smlouvy, zakladatelské listiny apod.).

Ambivalencí definice rozšíření je její značná obecnost. F. Schimmelfennig a U. Sedelmeier spojují svou definici s libovolnou organizací. Tento fakt je sice užitečný v případě komparace většího počtu organizací, nicméně v případě výzkumu specifického aktéra, jakým je Evropská unie se záhy ukáže její nedostatečnost. V prvé řadě je nutno zmínit terminologickou nejasnost mezi pojmy rozšíření u F. Schimmelfenniga a U. Sedelmeiera a běžně používaným pojmem evropská integrace. Z kontextu definice by bylo možno považovat rozšíření za pojem nadřazený pojmu evropská integrace. Ovšem, evropská integrace není pouze kvantitativním jevem, nýbrž i jevem se výraznou kvalitativní stránkou. Byť F. Schimmelfennig a U. Sedelmeier přiznávají důležitost i tzv. neformální stránce institucionalizace, tedy konkrétnímu naplňování normativních pramenů, v jejich definici rozšíření se tato skutečnost neobjevuje.

Pojem evropské integrace lze chápat ve dvou rovinách (srov. Mattli 1999:80). Obdobně jako F. Schimmelfennig a U. Sedelmeier navrhl W. Wallace rozlišovat integraci formální a neformální. Tento koncept nicméně více rozvádí. Za integraci formální lze považovat institucionální rámec procesu propojování regionů. V případě evropské integrace tudíž hlavně integrační smlouvy (Římská smlouva, Jednotný evropský akt, Maastrichtská smlouva atd.). Z definice se jedná o diskontinuitní proces postupující od smlouvy ke smlouvě. Na druhé straně vypovídá neformální integrace o sdílených vzorcích chování vymezených formálním rámcem. W. Wallace tvrdí, že neformální integrace vyvolává tlak na další rozvíjení formální integrace, a to na základě logiky poptávky. Jako příklad lze uvést tlak velkých firem na zavedení jednotného trhu a následovné promptní přijetí Jednotného evropského aktu.1 Koncept neformální integrace by bylo možno do definice F. Schimmelfenniga a U. Sedelmeiera velmi jednoduše zakomponovat, nicméně jejím dalším problematickým aspektem je, že pracuje pouze s jednou organizační dimenzí. U většiny organizací není nutno počítat s více než jednou úrovní vládnutí (governance level). U Evropské unie lze vymezit minimálně tři, resp. čtyři roviny. První rovinu tvoří supranacionální těleso, ztělesněné Evropskou komisí, druhá rovina zahrnuje jednotlivé členské státy a třetí je vymezena evropskými regiony. Určitá důležitost je připisována i jednotlivým obcím, diskuse o čtvrté rovině se nicméně ještě jeví jako předčasná.

Vztah formální a neformální integrace je tedy možno analyzovat nejen v rámci první roviny (jak naznačuje F. Schimmelfennig a U. Sedelmeier a rozvíjí W. Wallace), ale i v rámci třetí roviny (z logiky věci to není možné v rámci druhé roviny). Zatímco je logika fungování formální a neformální integrace a přínos jejího zkoumání v případě makroúrovně (první roviny) zřejmá. Otázkou zůstává, jestli je vymezení a uplatnění formální a neformální integrace vhodné i pro mikroúroveň (třetí rovina). Zatímco aktéry integrace první roviny jsou členské státy, za aktéry integrace na třetí rovině není možno považovat libovolné regiony, ale pouze regiony integrující (např. euroregiony).

Stejně jako u národních států, i u euroregionů je základním projevem formální integrace smlouva. Na mikroúrovni se jedná o Smlouvu o vytvoření euroregionu. Jsou v ní stanoveny orgány, cíle, územní vymezení, právní postavení apod. Mezi další institucionální rámce euroregionu pak patří Statut euroregionu či Statuty zájmových sdružení tvořící euroregion. Projevem neformální integrace euroregionů je pak konkrétní naplňování úkolů a cílů uvedených ve Smlouvě či Statutu.

Je ovšem diskutabilní, zda-li lze sledovat obdobný tlak neformální integrace na rozvíjení formální. Sdružené příhraniční celky mají od národních států jistou kompetenční nevýhodu. Političtí představitelé integrujících se krajů (okresů) nemají, na rozdíl od státních politických vůdců, takovou politickou legitimitu, aby mohli zcela změnit právní řád celku či aby mohli provést úplnou přeshraniční integraci. Tato skutečnost znemožňuje, aby se pod tlakem neformální integrace neustále prohlubovala integrace formální. V určitém momentu totiž dojde k situaci, že případné vstupy aktérů požadující prohloubení integrace nebudou moci být realizovány výstupy, kvůli nedostatečným politickým pravomocím adresátů nátlaku. Vztah formální a neformální integrace je nicméně vhodným nástrojem pro policy analysis integrujících celků, ať už na makro či mikro úrovni. Mimo neformální integraci by tedy bylo příhodně zakomponovat do definice F. Schimmelfenniga a U. Sedelmeiera i vícedimenziální charakter Evropské unie.

(Meta)teorie evropské integrace

Výzkum evropské integrace byl dlouhou dobu determinován vědeckou debatou o tom, která teorie integrace je pro daný předmět nejvhodnější. Na počátku integračního procesu se jako nejvhodnější jevily ekonomicky orientované teorie. Integrační proces byl recipován jako „single-issue“ fenomén, jehož hlavní proměnou je ekonomický přínos. Integrace byla definována jako: „(…) dobrovolné propojení ekonomických domén dvou či více nezávislých států, a to do takové míry, že kontrola klíčových oblastí vnitrostátní regulace je posunuta na supranacionální úroveň.“ (Mattli 1999:41) Z tohoto ekonomicky orientovaného přístupu těžila především neofunkcionalis­tická teorie a její princip přelévání. Lze konstatovat, že byť byla neofunkcionalis­tická teorie zformulována až v 60. letech, už rok 1950 její hlavní hypotézy potvrzoval.2

Opoziční teorií neofunkcionalistů, jakožto odnože nadnárodního paradigmatu byl tzv. intergovernmen­talismus. V duchu této teorie se neslo např. britské zablokování supranacionální podoby Rady Evropy či OEEC. Tyto organizace přes veškerou snahu obzvláště menších západoevropských zemí se kvůli tomu nestaly nástrojem evropské integrace, vznikly jako klasické mezivládní organizace. Mezivládní prvky lze spatřovat i v některých francouzských iniciativách z dob vlády Ch. de Gaulla (např. tzv. Fouchetovy plány). Postupný vývoj evropské integrace a „dozrávání“ subjektu Evropského společenství resp. Evropské unie se neslo v určitém kompromisu mezi neofunkcionalis­tickou (lépe nadnárodní) a intergovernmen­talistickou teorií. Typickým zhmotněním tohoto kompromisu je např. podoba institucionálního zakotvení Evropské unie.

Rozvoj stranického politického systému ES/EU společně s posilováním pravomocí Evropského parlamentu a prorůstáním evropských policy do více oblastí však ukázalo limity zjednodušující dichotomie supranacionalismus vs. intergovernem­natlismus. Bylo nutno konstatovat, že tato dichotomie může sice zodpovědět otázky týkající se polity, nicméně je již nedostatečná pro uchopení politics, resp. policy ES/EU. Zatímco pro zkoumání politics se vhodnou teorií stal komparativní výzkum politiky, pro výzkum policy bylo možno využít nástrojů policy analysis, resp. governance approach.

Toto štěpení výzkumných teorií dle polity, politics a policy však bylo možno ještě modifikovat v závislosti na tzv. metateorie. V rámci výzkumu evropské integrace je možno vymezit dvě metateorie: racionalistickou a konstruktivis­tickou. Rozdíl mezi nimi leží v přístupu k „materiálním“ pozitivistickým faktům. Zatímco racionalisté pokládají materiální zájmy za hlavní (ne-li jedinou) proměnou. Konstruktivisté akcentují spíše ideje a identity. Štěpení teoretických přístupů dle polity, policy a politics tak může mít dvě modifikace: racionalistickou a konstruktivis­tickou.

Závěrem lze konstatovat, že teorie evropské integrace (ať už v jednotném či množném čísle) je stále otevřený výzkumný předmět, který je úzce determinován samotným integračním procesem. Tyto teorie je tedy možno formulovat/re­vidovat pouze ex post, což sice napomáhá výzkumu jevů uplynulých, nicméně eliminuje jakoukoliv prognostickou hodnotu.

Literatura

Poznámky pod čarou

  1. Představitel Philips, W. Dekker, prohlásil v roce 1985 pro Financial Times, že pokud evropští politici neprosadí jednotný trh, neexistuje důvod, proč by Philips měl zůstat v Nizozemí. „(…) jsem natolik Evropan, abych čekal do poslední možné chvíle, ale pokud Evropa není ani schopna, ani ochotna rozvíjet ekonomické struktury, pak budou muset být přijata jiná opatření.“ Záhy zaslali šéfové třiceti významných evropských firem otevřený dopis členům Evropské rady. V něm žádali urychlené přijetí jednotného trhu a realizaci hlavních bodů Římské smlouvy. Jednotný evropský akt byl přijat v únoru 1986. (Matli 1999: 80).
  2. Rok 1950 byl příznačný pro mnohé neofunkcionalis­tické snahy jako např. projekty Transport pool, či Green pool, případně Pelaův či Stikkerův plán. Nejznámější a na rozdíl od jiných i realizovaný neofunkcionalis­tický projekt byl Schumanův plán (viz např. Goněc 2001).

Časopis pro politiku a mezinárodní vztahy

S podporou International Institute of Political Science v Brně

 
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